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Epictetus

6 works in the library, 3 with an English translation.

Greek Stoic philosopher, born at Hierapolis. From Wikidata; Wikipedia.

Lived
1st–2nd c. AD
Kinds of writing
Philosophy (5)
Analysed
105,749 words

The 6 works

The works here with a translation and the most familiar vocabulary: the fewest rare words to look up. That is vocabulary only; grammar, dialect and ideas may still be demanding.

The road of the text

Follow the text from Epictetus's own day to the book in your hands. The gaps are the long silences between one mark and the next.

Before you read. Little numbers like 1 are footnotes. Tap one and it jumps to the source at the bottom of the page, so you can check us. Debated among scholars The evidence allows more than one reading, and specialists disagree. Ancient tradition / legend This is what ancient writers told; it may not be what happened. No label? Then the sources simply state it as fact.

  • The author
  • Readers
  • Copies
  • Print and editions
  1. c. AD 50The authorBorn, probably at Hierapolis in Phrygia; the year is a guess1,3,6 Debated among scholars
  2. about 40 years laterc. AD 89The authorDomitian's decree expels the philosophers from Rome and Italy; Epictetus leaves for Nicopolis (dated 89, 92, about 93 or 94)1,2,3,4,9 Debated among scholars
  3. about 19 years laterc. AD 108The authorArrian hears his talks at Nicopolis and takes them down1,33
  4. about 20 years laterc. AD 130The authorDies at Nicopolis, usually dated between about 125 and 135; the Suda says later1,3,6 Debated among scholars
  5. about 40 years laterc. AD 170ReadersMarcus Aurelius, emperor 161–180, quotes him in his notebook, the Meditations3,30
  6. about 60 years laterc. AD 230ReadersAbout 248 Origen, answering Celsus, writes that ordinary people admire Epictetus while Plato is read only by the learned3,31,42
  7. about 300 years laterc. AD 530ReadersIn the sixth century Simplicius writes his huge commentary on the Handbook3,22
  8. about 420 years laterc. AD 950CopiesThe oldest surviving manuscripts of the Christian versions of the Handbook (tenth century)3
  9. about 150 years laterc. 1100CopiesThe Oxford manuscript of the Discourses, ancestor of all the others, is copied3,4
  10. about 350 years later1450ReadersNiccolò Perotti translates the Handbook into Latin3,23
  11. 47 years later1497Print and editionsPoliziano's Latin translation (made in 1479) is printed: the first printed Handbook3,23
  12. 31 years later1528Print and editionsThe Greek Handbook, most of it, first printed at Venice inside Simplicius' commentary3,35
  13. 7 years later1535Print and editionsFirst printed edition of the Discourses (Vettore Trincavelli, Venice)3,4,35
  14. about 220 years later1758Print and editionsElizabeth Carter's English translation of all the works (London)3,33
  15. 41 years later1799Print and editionsJohann Schweighäuser's five-volume Epictetus (Leipzig, 1799–1800), the standard for a century3,4
  16. 95 years later1894Print and editionsHeinrich Schenkl's Teubner edition, based on the Oxford manuscript (second edition 1916, the Greek in the reader)3,4,40
  17. 31 years later1925Print and editionsW. A. Oldfather's Loeb edition and translation begins to appear (vol. 2, 1928)4,22
  18. 74 years later1999Print and editionsGerard Boter's critical edition of the Handbook and its Christian adaptations1,3

Life and work

Checked against sources · 7 October 2026

Epictetus was a Greek philosopher of the Stoic school who lived from about AD 50 to about 135.1,2 He was a slave in his youth and became a teacher known across the Roman world, yet he never published a word: everything we can read of him we owe to a pupil, Arrian.2,3,4 His whole teaching grows from one question that anyone can ask on a bad day: is this up to me, or not?5

A slave in Rome

The Byzantine encyclopedia called the Suda says that he came from Hierapolis in Phrygia,6 a Greek city in what is now western Turkey.2 Nobody knows when he was born; about AD 50 is the usual estimate.3 Even his name tells us little: the Greek adjective ἐπίκτητος simply means “gained besides” or “acquired”, and the name his parents gave him is unknown.2,7 An inscription from Pisidia says that his mother was a slave. Whether or not that is true, it is certain that he came to Rome as a slave in the household of Epaphroditus, a freedman who served the emperor Nero as his secretary.3

While still a slave, Epictetus took lessons from Musonius Rufus, a Roman senator and Stoic philosopher who taught at Rome.1,4 He remembered how Rufus tested him: “Rufus, in order to try me, used to say: This and this will befall you from your master”.8

Once freed, he began to teach on his own at Rome.1 Then, under the emperor Domitian, a decree of the Senate expelled the philosophers from Rome and from Italy. The Roman writer Aulus Gellius, later in the second century, adds that “Epictetus too left Rome for Nicopolis because of that decree” (our translation of his Latin).9 Nicopolis, on the Adriatic coast of north-western Greece, was an important centre of travel and government,1 and Epictetus speaks of himself as one “who dwell in Nicopolis, where there are so many earthquakes”.10 He taught there for the rest of his life.1

Debated among scholars The year of the expulsion is disputed: the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy gives 89, W. A. Oldfather's Loeb edition 89 or 92, Wikipedia about 93, and Gerard Boter 94.1,2,3,4 The date of his death is even less certain. It is usually put between about 125 and 135, but the Suda says that he lived on into the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180).1,3,6

The lame old man

Epictetus was lame, and he spoke of it without self-pity: “what else can I do, a lame old man, than sing hymns to God?”11 The Handbook turns it into a lesson: «χώλανσις σκέλους ἐστὶν ἐμπόδιον, προαιρέσεως δὲ οὔ», “Lameness is an impediment to the leg, but not to the will.”12

Ancient tradition / legend Why he was lame, nobody knows. The pagan critic Celsus, quoted by the Christian writer Origen, told the famous story: when his master was twisting his leg, Epictetus smiled and said calmly «κατάσσεις», “you will break it”; and when it broke, “Didn't I tell you that you would break it?” (our translation).13 The Suda says instead that his leg was crippled by rheumatism, «πηρωθεὶϲ δὲ τὸ ϲκέλοϲ ὑπὸ ῥεύματοϲ»,6 and the sixth-century philosopher Simplicius only that he was lame from early in life.4

Debated among scholars His family life is uncertain too. He lived alone for a long time, and late in life he took in a friend's child who would otherwise have been left to die. The Stanford Encyclopedia says that he never married; Oldfather that in old age he took a wife to help him bring the child up; the ancient evidence, chiefly a remark of Simplicius, is ambiguous.1,2,4

He lived simply. He tells his pupils that a thief once stole the iron lamp that stood by his household gods, and that he said to himself: “To-morrow, I said, you will find an earthen lamp”.14 Later in the second century the satirist Lucian laughed at a man who “paid three thousand drachmas for the earthenware lamp of Epictetus the Stoic”, hoping to dream his way into the wisdom of “that marvellous old man”.3,15

What survives, and who wrote it down

Like Socrates, Epictetus published nothing.3,4 We owe him to Flavius Arrian, a Greek from Nicomedia in Bithynia who studied with him as a young man and went on to become a Roman consul and the historian of Alexander the Great.16,17 Lucian calls him “Arrian, the disciple of Epictetus, a Roman of the highest distinction”.18

In a letter at the head of the Discourses, Arrian insists that he did not “write” them at all: “whatever I heard him say, the same I attempted to write down in his own words as nearly as possible”, as notes for himself, which then reached the public “without either my consent or my knowledge”.19 The talks belong to Epictetus' later years at Nicopolis, around 108 by the usual dating.1,33

Arrian's record was large. The Byzantine scholar Photius knew “the Lectures of Epictetus his master, with eight books of which we are acquainted, and the Conversations of Epictetus in twelve books”,20 and Gellius tells of a Stoic on a ship who took from his bag “the fifth book” of Epictetus' discourses arranged by Arrian (our translation).21 Only four books survive.1,4

Debated among scholars Are they his own words? They are in Koine, the everyday Greek of the time, not the polished Attic Greek of Arrian's own books, and their blunt, quick manner is unlike his, so the mainstream view trusts them as a record of Epictetus' teaching, if not word for word. At the extremes, some have held that Arrian largely composed them himself, and a few, notably Robert Dobbin, that Epictetus wrote them.1,3,4,33

The second work is the Handbook, in Greek Ἐγχειρίδιον (Encheiridion), a book to have “in the hand”.7 Arrian made it himself from the Discourses,3,22 and somewhat more than half of it can be traced in the four surviving books.22 It has fifty-three short chapters.23 Quotations in later collections, above all the anthology of Stobaeus, keep scraps of the lost books.3

Up to us, and not up to us

The Handbook opens with the whole philosophy in one sentence: «τῶν ὄντων τὰ μέν ἐστιν ἐφʼ ἡμῖν, τὰ δὲ οὐκ ἐφʼ ἡμῖν», in George Long's English “Of things some are in our power, and others are not.”5 In our power, it goes on, are our opinions, our impulses, our desires and aversions: in a word, our own acts. Not in our power are the body, property, reputation and office; they are “weak, slavish, subject to restraint, in the power of others”.5

At the centre stands a word Epictetus made his own, προαίρεσις (prohairesis). The dictionary gives “choosing one thing before another”, then purpose or resolve;7 translators write “will”, “moral purpose” or “volition”.1,4,24 It is the one thing no one can take from us. Imagine, he says, a tyrant threatening chains: «τὸ σκέλος μου δήσεις, τὴν προαίρεσιν δὲ οὐδʼ ὁ Ζεὺς νικῆσαι δύναται», “You may fetter my leg, but my will not even Zeus himself can overpower.”24 And what upsets us is never the event itself: «ταράσσει τοὺς ἀνθρώπους οὐ τὰ πράγματα, ἀλλὰ τὰ περὶ τῶν πραγμάτων δόγματα», “Men are disturbed not by the things which happen, but by the opinions about the things”.25

What reading him is like

The Discourses are not lectures but talk: a teacher arguing with a pupil, a visitor or an imaginary objector, now heartfelt, now satirical.1,3 He did not want his pupils comfortable: «ἰατρεῖόν ἐστιν, ἄνδρες, τὸ τοῦ φιλοσόφου σχολεῖον», “The philosopher's school, ye men, is a surgery: you ought not to go out of it with pleasure, but with pain.”26 And he could be tender: «τί γὰρ ἄλλο δύναμαι γέρων χωλὸς εἰ μὴ ὑμνεῖν τὸν θεόν;», and “If then I was a nightingale, I would do the part of a nightingale.”11 Gellius heard from the philosopher Favorinus that Epictetus summed up his advice in two words, «ἀνέχου» and «ἀπέχου»,27,28 which Boter renders “bear and forbear”.3

Why he matters

Marcus Aurelius, emperor from 161, thanked his teacher Rusticus for introducing him to «τοῖς Ἐπικτητείοις ὑπομνήμασιν», “the notes of Epictetus” (our translation),3,29 and he quotes him: «Ψυχάριον εἶ βαστάζον νεκρόν, ὡς Ἐπίκτητος ἔλεγεν», “You are a little soul carrying a corpse, as Epictetus used to say” (our translation).30 About 248, in his reply to the pagan Celsus, the Christian Origen observed that Plato was handled only by the learned, while Epictetus was admired even by ordinary people, «καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν τυχόντων», who felt that his words made them better.3,31,42 In the sixth century Simplicius wrote a huge commentary on the Handbook,3,22 and Greek monks reworked the Handbook three times as a guide for monastic life, sometimes putting Paul where Epictetus had named Socrates.3,22

In the Renaissance Niccolò Perotti (1450) and Angelo Poliziano (1479) translated the Handbook into Latin, and Poliziano's version, printed in 1497, was the first printed edition of the Handbook.3,23 Elizabeth Carter's English translation of all the works came out in London in 1758.3 In the twentieth century the psychotherapist Albert Ellis built his Rational-Emotive Therapy on the opening line of Handbook 5,3 and in Tom Wolfe's novel A Man in Full (1998) a young man in prison finds strength in Epictetus.1,3

How the words reached us

Manuscripts & transmission

Passed from hand to hand

From notes to books. Arrian says that his notes reached the public without his knowledge.19 In the second century they were already being read aloud: Gellius tells how Herodes Atticus, at his country house near Athens, silenced a boastful young Stoic by sending for a volume of “the Discourses of Epictetus, arranged by Arrian”.32 Ancient writers call the work by several names (discourses, talks, records, conversations), and it is still argued whether these were one work or several.3,4,33 Gellius knew a fifth book, Photius eight books of discourses and twelve of conversations; only four books survive, with some fragments of the rest.1,20,21

Anthologies. In the second half of the fifth century Stobaeus copied passages of Epictetus into his great anthology, and most fragments of the lost books come from him. He quotes the Handbook twenty-one times and the surviving Discourses only four times, a sign that the Handbook was the more widely read.3 Heinrich Schenkl's numbering of the fragments is the standard one.3

One manuscript. The Discourses survive in some twenty manuscripts, and all of them go back to one book now in Oxford: Bodleian Library, Auct. T. 4. 13 (also catalogued as Misc. Graec. 251), copied about 1100; Oldfather dates it to the eleventh or twelfth century.3,4 The proof is a stain. On folio 25 of the Oxford book a large patch in the middle of the page became illegible, “apparently by the pressure of some heavy weight, the leg of a chair perhaps”, and every other manuscript either leaves out the illegible words or drops the whole passage.3,34 J. L. G. Mowat and Schenkl showed that the Oxford book is the ancestor of all the others, so that the Discourses “must have survived the Middle Ages in only a single exemplar”.4 Schenkl believed that the notes in its margins were written by Arethas, a Byzantine scholar of about 900.3

The Handbook. The Handbook and its three Christian adaptations survive in more than a hundred manuscripts. The oldest are copies of the Christian versions, from the tenth century; the chief witnesses to the plain Handbook date from the fourteenth and fifteenth.3 Simplicius' sixth-century commentary, more than ten times as long as the text it explains, also carries it.3,22

Print. Poliziano's Latin Handbook was printed in 1497.3 The Greek first appeared in Venice in 1528, as headings to the sections of Simplicius' commentary, and Gregor Haloander published the complete Greek Handbook at Nuremberg in 1529.3,35 The Discourses were first printed by Vettore Trincavelli at Venice in 1535, from a manuscript so faulty that Oldfather judged the edition valueless for fixing the text.3,4 John Upton's London edition (1739–41) drew on some knowledge of several manuscripts, and Johann Schweighäuser's Handbook (1798) and five volumes of Epictetus (Leipzig, 1799–1800) set the standard for a century.3,4 Schenkl's Teubner edition (Leipzig, 1894; second edition 1916) was the first text of the Discourses based on the Oxford manuscript, and it is still the standard; Gerard Boter published a critical edition of the Handbook and its Christian adaptations in 1999.1,3

Textual variants

Where the copies disagree

Under the stain. In Discourses 1.18 Epictetus tells his pupils to pity wrongdoers rather than hate them, and just there the Oxford manuscript is illegible.4,33,36 The reader's Greek, Schenkl's text, shows the damage: in section 10 several words are missing and some letters are marked as doubtful.36 Translators fill the holes differently. George Long, translating in 1877, before Schenkl's edition, has “these words which the many utter: these accursed and odious fellows”.33,36 Oldfather's Loeb prints “do not introduce those words which the multitude of the censorious use: ‘Well, then, these accursed and abominable fools!’”, and his notes show that the Greek words behind “introduce”, “censorious” and “fools” are modern restorations, by J. L. G. Mowat, by Schenkl, and by E. Capps for a gap of about five letters in the manuscript.4

Told twice. Chapter 29 of the Handbook is practically word for word the same as Discourses 3.15, on the training an Olympic victory demands. Because one of the Christian adaptations leaves it out and Simplicius does not comment on it, Oldfather suggested that it was added in a second edition, by Arrian or by someone else.22,23 The twin passages correct each other. Where the athlete must «παρορύσσεσθαι», “dig in” beside his opponent, and «ἐκβαλεῖν» a hand, the manuscripts of the Handbook have παρέρχεσθαι or παρέχεσθαι, and βαλεῖν, λαβεῖν or βλαβεῖν; John Upton restored the words from the Discourses, and editors print them.22,37 The two still differ in one word: the Handbook says «ἀναγκοτροφεῖν», the Discourses «ἀναγκοφαγεῖν», two words that LSJ explains as eating “by regimen, not after one's own appetite”, as athletes do.7,37,38

Which book? When Herodes Atticus sent for “the first volume of the Discourses of Epictetus” to rebuke the young Stoic, the passage that was read out is the one we call Discourses 2.19, as J. C. Rolfe's note to his Loeb translation of Gellius (1927) points out: “Actually the second book, II.19.”32 There Epictetus mocks a would-be philosopher who asks him about good and evil by answering with a line of Homer, «Ἰλιόθεν με φέρων ἄνεμος Κικόνεσσι πέλασσεν», “The wind, bearing me from Ilium, drove me to the Cicones” (Rolfe's translation).32,39

Debated among scholars Epictetus or not? Many sayings once printed under his name are doubtful. The reader's text, Schenkl's, heads the fragments Fragmenta dissertationum Epictetearum sive ab Arriano sive ab aliis digestarum, “fragments of the discourses of Epictetus, arranged either by Arrian or by others” (our translation).40 Oldfather kept only the genuine ones, which are “not very numerous”: earlier editions had added many aphorisms from Stobaeus and from a collection “purporting to contain excerpts from Democritus, Isocrates, and Epictetus”, and the researches of Schenkl, R. Asmus and A. Elter cast such doubt on them that he did not print them.22 The reader includes Schenkl's edition of this sort of material, the Gnomologium Epicteteum, sayings from Stobaeus and from a Vatican manuscript, in two parts.40,41

Socrates becomes Paul. The Christian adaptations of the Handbook are a kind of variant in themselves. In two of them the text is only lightly changed: Socrates and other pagans give way to Christian names such as Paul or Solomon, the gods become one God, and passages that clash with Christian faith are left out. The third, the Paraphrasis Christiana, goes much further, turning chapter 11, on endurance, into a short commentary on Job 1:21, and replacing the quotations from Plato at the end with passages from the Gospels.3

Books to read it in

  • H. Schenkl, Epicteti dissertationes ab Arriano digestae, editio maior, 2nd edition (Teubner, Leipzig, 1916; first edition 1894).1,3,40 The Greek in the reader: the Discourses, the Handbook, the fragments and the gnomologies.
  • George Long, The Discourses of Epictetus, with the Encheiridion and Fragments (George Bell and Sons, London, 1877; the reader uses the printing of 1887).33,40 The default English in the reader.
  • T. W. Higginson, The Works of Epictetus (first edition 1865; the reader uses the printing by Thomas Nelson and Sons, New York, 1890).33,40 The second English translation in the reader, revised from Elizabeth Carter's.
  • W. A. Oldfather, Epictetus: The Discourses as Reported by Arrian, the Manual, and Fragments, 2 vols (Loeb Classical Library; Heinemann, London, and Putnam, New York, 1925–28; later reprinted by Harvard University Press).4,22 Greek and English face to face, with notes on the text.
  • G. Boter, The Encheiridion of Epictetus and Its Three Christian Adaptations (Brill, Leiden, 1999).1,3 The critical edition of the Handbook.
  • R. Dobbin, Epictetus: Discourses Book 1 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1998).1 Translation with introduction and commentary.
  • R. Hard, Epictetus: Discourses, Fragments, Handbook (Oxford University Press, 2014).33 A complete modern English translation.
  • R. Waterfield, Epictetus: The Complete Works (University of Chicago Press, 2022).1 Another complete translation, with introduction and notes.

Where this comes from

Sources (42)
  1. Margaret Graver, “Epictetus”, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (first published 2008, revised 2025): life, works, teaching, influence and bibliography
  2. Wikipedia, Epictetus (Hierapolis, now Pamukkale; his name; the banishment about 93; the adopted child and Simplicius' ambiguous words)
  3. Gerard J. Boter, “Epictetus”, Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum 9 (2011), pp. 1–54: the “Fortuna” (life, works, manuscripts, reception, editions)
  4. W. A. Oldfather, Epictetus: The Discourses as Reported by Arrian, the Manual, and Fragments, vol. 1 (Loeb Classical Library; “first printed 1925”), introduction, bibliography and the notes to Discourses 1.18, Internet Archive (reprint of 1956; the first issue, London: Heinemann, New York: Putnam, is also there)
  5. Epictetus, Handbook 1, in the reader
  6. The Suda, entry Epictetus (epsilon 2424), in the reader
  7. Liddell–Scott–Jones, Greek–English Lexicon: the entries ἐπίκτητος, ἐγχειρίδιος, προαίρεσις, ἀναγκοτροφέω and ἀναγκοφαγέω (read in the site's copy; also on the Perseus Digital Library)
  8. Epictetus, Discourses 1.9.29–30, in the reader (Rufus testing him)
  9. Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 15.11.3–5, Latin text on LacusCurtius (Domitian's decree; Epictetus leaves for Nicopolis)
  10. Epictetus, Discourses 2.6.20, in the reader (living in Nicopolis)
  11. Epictetus, Discourses 1.16.20–21, in the reader (“a lame old man”)
  12. Epictetus, Handbook 9, in the reader
  13. Origen, Against Celsus 7.53, in the reader (Celsus' story of the leg)
  14. Epictetus, Discourses 1.18.15–16, in the reader (the stolen lamp)
  15. Lucian, The Ignorant Book-Collector 13, in the reader (Epictetus' lamp)
  16. Wikipedia, Arrian (born at Nicomedia in Bithynia; consul; author of the Anabasis of Alexander; called the young Xenophon)
  17. The Suda, entry Arrian (alpha 3868), in the reader (pupil of Epictetus, consul)
  18. Lucian, Alexander the False Prophet 2, in the reader (Arrian, the disciple of Epictetus)
  19. Arrian's letter to Lucius Gellius, the preface to the Discourses, in the reader
  20. Photius, Bibliotheca, codex 58 (on Arrian), translated by J. H. Freese (1920), on the Tertullian Project
  21. Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 19.1.14–21, Latin text on LacusCurtius (the fifth book of the Discourses)
  22. W. A. Oldfather, Epictetus, vol. 2 (Loeb Classical Library; “first printed 1928”): the introductions to the Fragments and to the Encheiridion, and the notes to Encheiridion 29, Internet Archive (reprint of 1959; the first issue, London: Heinemann, New York: Putnam, 1928, is also there)
  23. Wikipedia, Enchiridion of Epictetus (fifty-three chapters; chapter 29; Perotti 1450, Poliziano 1479, printed 1497)
  24. Epictetus, Discourses 1.1.22–24, in the reader (“You may fetter my leg”)
  25. Epictetus, Handbook 5, in the reader
  26. Epictetus, Discourses 3.23.30, in the reader (the school as a surgery)
  27. Epictetus, Fragment 10 (from Gellius 17.19), in the reader
  28. Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 17.19, Latin text on LacusCurtius (Favorinus on Epictetus' two words)
  29. Marcus Aurelius, To Himself (Meditations) 1.7, in the reader (Rusticus and the notes of Epictetus)
  30. Marcus Aurelius, To Himself (Meditations) 4.41, in the reader
  31. Origen, Against Celsus 6.2, in the reader (Plato and Epictetus)
  32. Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 1.2, translated by J. C. Rolfe (Loeb, 1927), with his notes, on LacusCurtius
  33. Wikipedia, Discourses of Epictetus (titles; date about 108 and Trajan's coins; the Bodleian manuscript; editions; the English translations of Carter 1758, Higginson 1865, Long 1877, Hard 2014)
  34. W. M. Lindsay, An Introduction to Latin Textual Emendation (London, 1896), p. 43, on the stain in the Bodleian manuscript (Internet Archive)
  35. Wikipedia, List of editiones principes in Greek (Handbook with Simplicius, Venice, 1528, and Haloander, 1529; Discourses, Venice, 1535)
  36. Epictetus, Discourses 1.18.8–11, in the reader: Schenkl's Greek with the gaps of the stained page, and George Long's English
  37. Epictetus, Handbook 29, in the reader
  38. Epictetus, Discourses 3.15.1–5, in the reader
  39. Epictetus, Discourses 2.19.12–13, in the reader
  40. The reader's copies of Epictetus: each file's header names its source (Schenkl's Teubner editio maior, Leipzig, 1916, for all the Greek; George Long's translation, London: George Bell and Sons, 1887 (the date of the scan the file reproduces; the file's header says 1890); T. W. Higginson's, New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1890); here the heading of the Fragments
  41. Gnomologium Epicteteum, from Stobaeus and a Vatican manuscript, in Schenkl's edition, in the reader
  42. Wikipedia, Contra Celsum (written in around 248)

We checked every statement above against these sources on 7 October 2026. Where they disagree, we say so. What we could not confirm, we left out.

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